Yeung, Ann Kar KeeAnn Kar KeeYeungHu, G.2026-04-092026-04-092026https://repository.sfu.edu.hk/handle/sfu/5364While previous studies have demonstrated the pedagogical utility of data-driven learning (DDL), little research has compared direct (computer-based) and indirect (paper-based) DDL in English-as-a-second-language writing instruction. To address this gap, this study examined the effectiveness of the two DDL approaches in improving first-year college students’ knowledge and use of <i>that</i>-clauses in an English-for-academic-purposes course. Using a pre-post-delayed quasi-experimental design, two experimental groups received either direct or indirect DDL interventions, while a control group received traditional teacher-fronted instruction. Both DDL interventions led to short-term gains in the frequency of <i>that</i>-clause use. While the indirect DDL intervention was effective in sustaining such gains beyond the post-test, the gains for the direct DDL group disappeared on the delayed test. In terms of variety of use, only the direct DDL group showed improvement from the pre-test to the post-test and maintained this improvement on the delayed test. The direct DDL intervention was also somewhat more effective than the indirect DDL intervention in improving participants’ variety scores on the post-test. Finally, neither the direct nor the indirect DDL intervention had any significant effect on the accuracy with which <i>that</i>-clauses were used. Implications for second language writing instruction and future DDL research are discussed.enjournal article10.1016/j.jslw.2026.101301